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Journal Issue: Critical Health Issues for Children and Youth Volume 4 Number 3 Winter 1994

Violence and Today's Youth
Authors: Felton J. Earls

Endnotes

  1. The circumstances of the incidents described here are taken from an article appearing in a local newspaper. Names and details of events have been deliberately altered, but not to the extent that the story has been distorted.
  2. A full discussion of these sources of data and their limitations is reported in Reiss, Jr., A.J., and Roth, J.A., eds. Understanding and preventing violence. Washington DC: National Academy Press, 1993.
  3. Elliott, D.S., Huizinga, D., and Morse, B. Self-reported violent offending: A descriptive analysis of juvenile violent offenders and their offending careers. Journal of Interpersonal Violence (1986) 1,4:472–514.
  4. Kolbe, L.J. An epidemiological surveillance system to monitor the prevalence of youth behaviors that most affect health. Health Education (1990) 21:44–48.
  5. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment. Delinquency: Prevention and services. In Adolescent health. Vol. 2: Background and the effectiveness of selected prevention and treatment services. Washington, DC: OTA, November 1991, pp. 583–89.
  6. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Juveniles taken into custody: Fiscal year 1990 report. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, 1991, pp. 7–16.
  7. U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation. Crime in the United States 1988. Uniform Crime Reports. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1989.
  8. See note no. 2, Reiss and Roth, for further discussion.
  9. Weiner, N. Violent criminal careers and violent career criminals: An overview of the literature. In Violent crime, violent criminals. N. Weiner and M.E. Wolfgang, eds. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989, pp. 35–138.
  10. Farrington, D. Childhood aggression and adult violence: Early precursors and later-life outcomes. In The development and treatment of childhood aggression. D.J. Pepler and K.H. Rubin, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1991, pp. 5–29.
  11. U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation. Crime in the United States 1990. Uniform Crime Reports. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1991.
  12. Johnson, C.M., and Robinson, M.T. Homicide report. Washington, DC: Office of Criminal Justice Plans and Analysis, April 1992.
  13. Fagan, J., Slaughter, E., and Hartstone, E. Blind justice? The impact of race on the juvenile justice process. Crime and Delinquency (1987) 33:224–58.
  14. Bazemore, G., and McKean, J. Minority overrepresentation. In Hard times, helping hands: Developing primary health care services for incarcerated youth. L.S. Thompson and J.A. Farrow, eds. Arlington, VA: National Center for Education in Maternal and Child Health, 1993, pp. 99–120.
  15. Snyder, H.N., Finnegan, T.A., Nimick, E.H., et al. Juvenile court statistics, 1985. Pittsburgh, PA: National Center for Juvenile Justice, 1989.
  16. Illinois Criminal Justice Information Authority. Trends and issues 91: Education and criminal justice in Illinois. Chicago: Illinois Criminal Justice Information Authority, 1991.
  17. Callahan, C.M., and Rivara, F.P. Urban high school youth and handguns: A school based survey. Journal of the American Medical Association (June 1992) 267:3038–42.
  18. Burt, C. The young delinquent. 4th ed. London: Tavistock Press, 1954, Introduction, pp. 1-14.
  19. Tizard, B. The psychology of Jack Tizard. London: University of London, 1978, p. 312.
  20. Earls, F. Oppositional and conduct disorder. In Child psychiatry. L. Rutter, E. Taylor, and L. Hersov, eds. London: Blackwell Publishers, 1994.
  21. Constantine, J. Testosterone and aggression in children. Journal of the American Academy of Children and Adolescent Psychiatry (1993) 32,6:1217–22.
  22. Susman, E. Psychosocial, contextual, and psychobiological interactions: A developmental perspective on conduct disorder. Development and Psychopathology (1993) 5:181–89.
  23. White, J., Moffitt, T., Earls, F., et al. How early can we tell?: Predictors of conduct disorder and adolescent delinquency. Criminology (1991) 28:507–33.
  24. Moffitt, T. Juvenile delinquency and attention-deficit disorder: Developmental trajectories from age 3 to 15. Child Development (1990) 61:893–910.
  25. Earls, F. A developmental approach to understanding and controlling violence. Theory and Methods in Behavioral Pediatrics (1991) 5:61–88.
  26. Moffitt T. Life-course-persistent and adolescent-limited antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review (1993) 100:674–701.
  27. See note no. 5, U.S. Congress, p. 616.
  28. See note no. 5, U.S. Congress, p. 615.
  29. See note no. 15, Snyder, Finnegan, Nimick, et al. The 1,133 courts providing information to this archive constitute roughly half of all jurisdictions in the country.
  30. 30. Field, B. Criminalizing the American juvenile court. In Crime and justice: A review of research. Vol. 17. M. Tonry, ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993, pp. 197–280.
  31. Wilkins vs. Missouri. U.S. Law Weekly (1989) 57:4973.
  32. Prothrow-Stith, D. Deadly consequences: How violence is destroying our teenage population and a plan to begin solving the problem. New York: HarperCollins, 1991.
  33. National Council on Crime and Delinquency. Unlocking juvenile corrections: Evaluating the Massachusetts Department of Youth Services. San Francisco: NCCD, 1991.
  34. Zigler, E., and Styfco, S.J. Using research and theory to justify and inform Head Start expansion. Social Policy Report (Summer 1993) 7,2:1–22.
  35. McGuire, J., and Earls, F. The prevention of psychiatric disorder in early childhood. Journal of Child Psychiatry and Psychology (1991) 32:129–53.
  36. Earls, F., Cairns, R., and Mercy, J. The control of violence and promotion of non-violence. In Promoting the health of adolescents. S. Millstein, A. Peterson, and E. Nightingale, eds. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993, pp. 285–304.
  37. Wilson-Brewer, R., Cohen, S., O'Donnell, L., and Goodman, I.F. Violence prevention for young adolescents: A survey of the state of the art. Working paper. Cambridge, MA: Education Development Center, 1991.
  38. DeJong, W. Preventing interpersonal violence among youth: An introduction to school, community, and mass media strategies. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. In press.
  39. Wilson, W.J. Studying inner-city social dislocations: The challenge of public agenda research. American Sociological Review (1991) 56:1–14.
  40. Shaw, C., and McKay, H. Juvenile delinquency and urban areas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1942.
  41. Extreme poverty areas are described by Wilson (1991) as census tracts in which 40% or more of the residents live below the federally defined poverty line. Wilson indicates why the 2.4 million designated by this definition seriously underestimates those who are unable to live decently.
  42. Begun in 1976, this program is designed to help families in public housing move into private housing using Section 8 federal housing subsidies. Some 6,000 families have been involved in the project. For a reference reporting on evidence of the program's effectiveness, see Rosenbaum, J., and Popkin, S. Employment and earnings of low-income blacks who move to middle-class suburbs. In The urban underclass. C. Jencks and P. Peterson, eds. Washington, DC: Brookings Institute, 1991, pp. 342–56.
  43. Rosenberg, M., and Fenley, M., eds. Violence in America: A public health approach. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.
  44. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Healthy people 2000. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1991.
  45. The Los Angeles-based DARE program involves police in a drug education program. Other local efforts may involve police in peer mediation or in returning truants to school, but none of these is a systematic effort.
  46. Centerwall, B.S. Television and violence: The scale of the problem and where to go from here. Journal of the American Medical Association (June 1992) 267:3059–63.
  47. Slaby, R., ed. Violence and youth: Psychology's response. Summary report of the American Psychological Association Commission on Violence and Youth. Washington, DC: APA, 1993.
  48. Forst, M., and Blomquist, M. Cracking down on juveniles: The changing ideology of youth corrections. Notre Dame Journal of Law, Ethics and Public Policy (1991) 5:323–75.
  49. Madinger, E., Mayridges, J., Namazi, B., et al. Child rights. The Convention: Child rights and UNICEF experience at the country level. Innocenti Studies. ISSN 1014-8795. Florence, Italy: UNICEF International Child Development Centre, 1991.
  50. Himes, J. Implementing the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child: Resource mobilization and obligations of the states parties. Innocenti Occasional Papers. ISSN 1014-7837. Florence, Italy: UNICEF International Child Development Centre, 1992.
  51. Earls, F., McGuire, J., and Shay, S. Evaluating a community intervention to reduce the risk of child abuse: Findings from a neighborhood survey. Child Abuse & Neglect (1994) 18:473–85.
  52. Farrington, D. Have any individual, family or neighborhood influences on offending been demonstrated conclusively? In Integrating individual and ecological aspects of crime, D. Farrington, R. Sampson, and P. Wikstrom, eds. Stockholm, Sweden: National Council for Crime Prevention, 1993, pp. 7–37.
  53. For an example of computerized mapping technology currently in use, see Block, C. Spatial and Temporal Analysis of Crime (STAC). Available from the Illinois Criminal Justice Authority, 120 South Riverdale Plaza, Chicago, IL 60606-3997.
  54. Some elements of the basic design of this project are reported in Tonry, M., Ohlin, L., and Farrington, D. Human development and criminal behavior: New ways of advancing knowledge. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1991. For a list of publications that have been derived from the preparatory stage of this project, contact the author of this paper.
  55. For such a detailed analysis, see note no. 20, Earls, and note no. 36, Earls, Cairns, and Mercy.
  56. Earls, F., and Carlson, M. Towards sustainable development for American children. Daedalus (1993) 122:93–121.
  57. Earls, F. The social reconstruction of adolescence. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine (1978) 22:65–82.