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Journal Issue: Children, Youth, and Gun Violence Volume 12 Number 2 Summer/Fall 2002

Behavior-Oriented Approaches to Reducing Youth Gun Violence
Authors: Marjorie S. Hardy

Endnotes

  1. Christophersen, E.R. Improving compliance in childhood injury control. In Developmental aspects of health compliance behavior. N.A. Krasnegor, L.H. Epstein, S. Bennett, and S.J. Yaffee, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1993, pp. 219–31.


  2. Williams, A.F. Passive and active measures for controlling disease and injury. Health Psychology (1982) 1:399–409.


  3. Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry, Committee on Preventative Psychiatry. Violent behavior in children and youth: Preventative intervention from a psychiatric perspective. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (1999) 38(3):235–41.


  4. Hausman, A.J., Siddons, K., and Becker, J. Using community perspectives on youth firearm violence for prevention program planning. Journal of Community Psychology (2000) 28(6):643–54.


  5. Klassen, T.P., MacKay, J.M., Moher, A.W., and Jones, A.L. Community- based prevention interventions. The Future of Children (Spring/Summer 2000) 10(1):83–110.


  6. Bijur, P.E., Golding, J., and Kurzon, A. Childhood accidents, family size, and birth order. Social Science and Medicine (1988) 26(8):839–43.


  7. Glik, D.C., Greaves, P.E., Kronenfeld, J.J., and Jackson, K.L. Safety hazards in households with young children. Journal of Pediatric Psychology (1993) 18(1):115–31.


  8. Matheny, A.P. Injuries among toddlers: Contributions from child, mother, and family. Journal of Pediatric Psychology (1986) 11(2):163–76.


  9. Peterson, L., and Roberts, M.C. Complacency, misdirection, and effective prevention of children's injuries. American Psychologist (1992) 47(8):1040–44.


  10. Peterson, L., Farmer, J., and Kashani, J.H. Parental injury prevention endeavors: A function of health beliefs? Health Psychology (1990) 9:177–91.


  11. Jackman, G.A., Farah, M.M., Kellermann, A.L., and Simon, H.K. Seeing is believing: What do boys do when they find a real gun? Pediatrics (2001) 107(6):1247–50.


  12. Tremblay, G.C., and Peterson, L. Prevention of childhood injury: Clinical and public policy challenges. Clinical Psychology Review (1999) 19(4):415–34.


  13. Jacquess, D.L., and Finney, J.W. Previous injuries and behavior problems predict children's injuries. Journal of Pediatric Psychology (1994) 19(1):79–89.


  14. Peterson, L., Mori, L., and Scissors, C. Mom or dad says I shouldn't: Supervised and unsupervised children's knowledge of their parents' rules for home safety. Journal of Pediatric Psychology (1986) 11:177–88.


  15. Rivara, F.P., and Howard, D. Parental knowledge of child development and injury risks. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics (1982) 3:103–05.


  16. Peterson, L., Ewigman, B., and Kivlahan, C. Judgments regarding appropriate child supervision to prevent injury: The role of environmental risk and child age. Child Development (1993) 64:934–50.


  17. Hyson, M.C., and Bollin, G.G. Children's appraisal of home and neighborhood risks: Questions for the 1990s. Children's Environments Quarterly (1990) 7(3):50–60.


  18. American Academy of Pediatrics. Writer bytes...Childhood injury: It's no accident. Available online at http://www.aap.org/mrt/ciaccidents.htm.


  19. Farah, M.M., Simon, H.K., and Kellermann, A.L. Firearms in the home: Parental perceptions. Pediatrics (1999) 104(5):1059–63.


  20. Maute, M.L. New Jersey takes aim at gun violence by minors: Parental criminal liability. Rutgers Law Journal (Winter 1995) 26(2).


  21. See note no. 9, Peterson and Roberts.


  22. Christoffel, K.K. Toward reducing pediatric injuries from firearms: Charting a legislative and regulatory course. Pediatrics (1991) 88(2):294–305.


  23. Bardwell, S.K. Mom charged in gunplay death of son. Houston Chronicle, April 18, 2000, sec. A, at 13.


  24. Graham, P.K. Parental responsibility laws: Let the punishment fit the crime. Los Angeles Law Review (June 2000) 4:1719–54.


  25. Callahan, C.M., and Rivara, F.P. Urban high school youth and handguns: A school-based survey. Journal of the American Medical Association (1992) 267(22):3038–42.


  26. Baker, S.P., O'Neill, B., Ginsburg, M.J., and Li, G. The injury fact book. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.


  27. Wintemute, G.J., Teret, S.P., Kraus, J.F., et al. When children shoot children: 88 unintended deaths in California. Journal of the American Medical Association (1987) 257(21):3107–09.


  28. Smith, D.R., Cohen, J., and Lautman, B. Child's play: A study of 266 unintentional handgun shootings of children. Washington, DC: Center to Prevent Handgun Violence, 1989.


  29. Cummings, P., Grossman, D.C., Rivara, F.P., and Koepsell, T.D. State gun safe storage laws and child mortality due to firearms. Journal of the American Medical Association (1997) 278(13):1084–86.


  30. Peter D. Hart Research Associates. Parents, kids and guns: A nationwide survey. Conducted for the Brady Center to Prevent Handgun Violence. October 31 to November 4, 1998.


  31. Hardy, M.S. Firearm safety for children: Parent vs. child report. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of Eastern Psychological Association. Boston, MA. February 1998.


  32. Webster, D.W., and Starnes, M. Reexamining the association between child access prevention gun laws and unintentional shooting deaths of children. Pediatrics (2000) 106(6):1466–69.


  33. Christoffel, K.K., Spivak, H., and Witwer, M. Youth violence prevention: The physician's role. Journal of the American Medical Association (2000) 283(9):1202–03.


  34. Bass, J.L., Mehta, K.A., Ostrovsky, M., and Halperin, S.F. Educating parents about injury prevention. Pediatric Clinics of North America (1985) 32(1):233–41.


  35. Bass, J.L., Christoffel, K.K., Widome, M., et al. Childhood injury prevention counseling in primary care settings: A critical review of the literature. Pediatrics (1993) 92(4):544–50.


  36. Gibson, E., Dembofsky, C.A., Rubin, S., and Greenspan, J.S. Infant sleep position practices two years into the "Back to Sleep" campaign. Clinical Pediatrics (2000) 39(5):285–89.


  37. DiGuiseppi, C., and Roberts, I.G. Individual-level injury prevention strategies in the clinical setting. The Future of Children (Spring/Summer 2000) 10(1):53–82.


  38. Reisinger, K.S., and Bires, J.A. Anticipatory guidance in pediatric practice. Pediatrics (1980) 66(6):889–92.


  39. Barkin, S., Duan, N., Fink, A., et al. The smoking gun: Do clinicians follow guidelines on firearm safety counseling? Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine (1998) 152(8):749–56.


  40. Becker, E.C., and Christakis, N.A. Firearm injury prevention counseling: Are we missing the mark? Pediatrics (1999) 104(3):530–35.


  41. Shaughnessy, A., Cincotta, J., and Adelman, A. Family practice patients? Attitudes toward firearm safety as a preventive medicine issue. Journal of the American Board of Family Practice (1999) 12(5):354–59.


  42. Only 6.7% of gun-owning families reported removing any gun from their homes following the intervention. This was not significantly different from the 5.7% of families in the control group who did not receive counseling but who also removed guns from their homes. Similarly, gun-owning parents in the study group were no more likely to store their guns safely (for example, locked and unloaded) than parents in the control group. See Grossman, D.C., Cummings, P., Koepsell, T.D., et al. Firearm safety counseling in primary care pediatrics: A randomized controlled trial. Pediatrics (2000) 106(1):22–26.


  43. Brent, D.A., Baugher, M., Birmaker, B., et al. Compliance with recommendations to remove firearms in families participating in a clinical trial for adolescent depression. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (2000) 39(10):1220–26.


  44. Oatis, P.J., Fenn Buderer, N.M., Cummings, P., and Fleitz, R. Pediatric practice based evaluation of the Steps to Prevent Firearm Injury program. Injury Prevention (1999) 5(1):48–52.


  45. Morrongiello, B.A., and Dawber, T. Toddlers' and mothers' behaviors in an injury-risk situation: Implications for sex differences in childhood injuries. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology (1998) 19(4):625–39.


  46. Rosen, B.N., and Peterson, L. Gender differences in children's outdoor play injuries: A review and an integration. Clinical Psychology Review (1990) 10(2):187–205.


  47. Hardy, M.S. Teaching firearm safety to children: Failure of a program. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics (In press).


  48. Hillier, L.M., and Morrongiello, B.A. Age and gender differences in school-age children's appraisals of injury risk. Journal of Pediatric Psychology (1998) 23(4):229–38.


  49. Morrongiello, B.A., and Rennie, H. Why do boys engage in more risk taking than girls? The role of attributions, beliefs, and risk appraisals. Journal of Pediatric Psychology (1998) 23(1):33–44.


  50. Morrongiello, B.A., and Dawber, T. Mothers' responses to sons and daughters engaging in injury-risk behaviors on a playground: Implications for sex differences in injury rates. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology (2000) 76(2):89–103.


  51. Coppens, N.M. Cognitive development and locus of control as predictors of preschoolers' understanding of safety and prevention. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology (1985) 6:43–55.


  52. Coppens, N.M. Cognitive characteristics as predictors of children's understanding of safety and prevention. Journal of Pediatric Psychology (1986) 11(2):189–202.


  53. Shultz, T., and Meldelson, R. The use of covariation as a principle of causal analysis. Child Development (1975) 46(2):394–99.


  54. Benthin, A., Slovic, P., and Severan, H. A psychometric study of adolescent risk perception. Journal of Adolescence (1993) 16:153–68.


  55. Drug Strategies. Safe schools, safe students: A guide to violence prevention strategies. Washington, DC: Drug Strategies, 1998.


  56. Cole, T.B., and Patetta, M.J. Hunting firearm injuries, North Carolina. American Journal of Public Health (1988) 78(12):1585–86.


  57. Cook, P.J., and Ludwig, J. Guns in America: National survey on private ownership and use of firearms. National Institute of Justice Research in Brief. Washington, DC: NIJ, May 1997.


  58. Hemenway, D., Solnick, S.J., and Azrael, D.R. Firearm training and storage. Journal of the American Medical Association (1995) 273(1):46–50.


  59. Wilson, M.H., Baker, S.P., Teret, S.P., et al. Saving children: A guide to injury prevention. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.


  60. The National Rifle Association. Safety, education, and public service: Eddie Eagle. Available online at http://www.nrahq.org/safety/eddie/fact.asp.


  61. Exactly how children should be taught to distinguish between real and toy guns is not explained. Studies show that four- and five-year-old children cannot distinguish toy guns from real guns and that six- and seven-year-old children can make the distinction only if they pick up the gun to determine its weight. See Hardy, M.S., Armstrong, F.D., Martin, B.L., and Strawn, K.N. A firearm safety program for children: They just can't say no. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics (1996) 17(4):216–21.


  62. See note no. 61, Hardy, et al.


  63. Clayton, R.R., Cattarello, A.M., and Johnstone, B.M. The effectiveness of Drug Abuse Resistance Education (Project DARE): 5-year follow-up results. Preventive Medicine (1996) 25(3):307–18.


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  67. Rosenbaum, D., and Hanson, G. Assessing the effects of school-based drug education: A six-year multi-level analysis of Project DARE. Unpublished manuscript. Department of Criminal Justice and Center for Research in Law and Justice, University of Illinois, Chicago. 1998.


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  70. This effect has been noted in the drug resistance literature. Experts have found that some drug resistance programs that train youth how to say no to drugs create the impression of a pro-drug social norm and lead to increases in drug use. In addition, some eating disorder prevention programs have been found to inflate the perceived norm of eating disorders on campuses, resulting in an increase in the prevalence of anorexia and bulimia. See Berkowitz, A.D. From reactive to proactive prevention: Promoting an ecology of health on campus. In Substance abuse on campus: A handbook for college and university personnel. P.C. Rivers and E.R. Shore, eds. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1997, pp. 119–39; and Carter, J.D., Stewart, D.A., Dunn, V.J., and Fairburn, C.G. Primary prevention of eating disorders: Might it do more harm than good? International Journal of Eating Disorders (1997) 22(22):167–72.


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  73. Arrendondo, S., Aultman-Bettride, T., Johnson, T.P., et al. Preventing youth handgun violence: A national study with trends and patterns for the state of Colorado. Boulder, CO: Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence, 1999.


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  78. Youth in Action. Unpublished survey of the Hands without Guns program to reduce youth gun violence. July 1999.


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  81. Christoffel, K.K. Commentary: When counseling on guns doesn't work: Why don't they get it? Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (2000) 39(10):1226–28.


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