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Journal Issue: Juvenile Justice Volume 18 Number 2 Fall 2008

Adolescent Offenders with Mental Disorders
Authors: Thomas Grisso

Endnotes

  1. Linda Teplin and others, "Psychiatric Disorders in Youth in Juvenile Detention," Archives of General Psychiatry 59 (2002): 1133–43; Gail Wasserman and others, "The Voice DISC-IV with Incarcerated Male Youths: Prevalence of Disorder," Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 41 (2002): 314–21; Lanette Atkins and others, "Mental Health and Incarcerated Youth: I, Prevalence and Nature of Psychopathology," Journal of Child and Family Studies 8 (1999): 193–204.
  2. Daniel Connor, Aggression and Antisocial Behavior in Children and Adolescents (New York: Guilford, 2002); Raymond Novaco, "Anger as a Risk Factor for Violence among the Mentally Disordered," in Violence and Mental Disorder, edited by John Monahan and Henry Steadman (University of Chicago Press, 1994), pp. 21–59.
  3. Randy Borum and David Verhaagen, Assessing and Managing Violence Risk in Juveniles (New York: Guilford, 2006); Connor, Aggression and Antisocial Behavior (see note 2).
  4. Joseph Biederman and Thomas Spencer, "Depressive Disorders in Childhood and Adolescence: A Clinical Perspective," Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology 9 (1999): 233–37; I. Goodyer and P. Cooper, "A Community Study of Depression in Adolescent Girls: II. The Clinical Features of Identified Disorder," British Journal of Psychiatry 163 (1993): 374–80; M. Knox and others, "Aggressive Behavior in Clinically Depressed Adolescents," Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 39 (2000): 611–18.
  5. See note 1.
  6. American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision (Washington: American Psychiatric Press, 2000).
  7. Connor, Aggression and Antisocial Behavior (see note 2); Jason Walker and others, "Anxiety, Inhibition, and Conduct Disorder in Children: I, Relations to Social Impairment," Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 30 (1991): 187–91.
  8. Dennis Charney and others, "Psychobiological Mechanisms of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder," Archives of General Psychiatry 50 (1993): 294–305.
  9. Elizabeth Cauffman and others, "Posttraumatic Stress Disorder among Female Juvenile Offenders," Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 37 (1998): 1209–16; Hans Steiner, Ivan Garcia, and Zakee Matthews, "Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Incarcerated Juvenile Delinquents," Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 36 (1997): 357–65.
  10. For a comprehensive review supporting this conclusion, see Connor, Aggression and Antisocial Behavior (see note 2).
  11. Several excellent reviews summarize this relationship. Russell Barkley, "Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder," in Child Psychopathology, edited by Eric Mash and Russell Barkley (New York: Guilford, 1996), pp. 63–112; Paul Frick, Conduct Disorder and Severe Antisocial Behavior (New York: Plenum, 1998); Rolf Loeber and others, Antisocial Behavior and Mental Health Problems: Explanatory Factors in Childhood and Adolescence (Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1998).
  12. Barkley, "Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder" (see note 11).
  13. Lynn Kratzer and Sheilagh Hodgins, "Adult Outcomes of Child Conduct Problems: A Cohort Study," Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 25 (1997): 65–81.
  14. For more detailed discussion of substance use disorders among juvenile justice youth, see the article by Laurie Chassin in this volume. See also: Kathleen Brady, Hugh Myrick, and Susan McElroy, "The Relationship between Substance Use Disorders, Impulse Control Disorders, and Pathological Aggression," American Journal on Addictions 7 (1998): 221–30; David Huizinga and others, Co-Occurrence of Delinquency and Other Problem Behaviors (Washington: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 2000).
  15. Rolf Loeber, Jeffrey Burke, and Benjamin Lahey, "What Are Adolescent Antecedents to an Antisocial Personality Disorder?" Criminal Behavior and Mental Health 12 (2002): 24–36.
  16. Adrian Angold and Jane Costello, "Depressive Comorbidity in Children and Adolescents: Empirical, Theoretical and Methodological Issues," American Journal of Psychiatry 150 (1993): 1779–91; Eric Mash and David Dozois, "Child Psychopathology: A Developmental-Systems Approach," in Child Psychopathology, edited by Eric Mash and Russell Barkley (New York: Guilford, 1996), pp. 3–60.
  17. Karen Abram and others, "Comorbid Psychiatric Disorders in Youth in Juvenile Detention," Archives of General Psychiatry 60 (2003): 1097–1108.
  18. Barkley, "Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder" (see note 11); Frick, Conduct Disorder and Severe Antisocial Behavior (see note 11).
  19. William Copeland and others, "Childhood Psychiatric Disorders and Adult Crime: A Prospective, Population-Based Study," American Journal of Psychiatry 164 (2007): 1668–75.
  20. Maryann Davis and Ann Vander Stoep, "The Transition to Adulthood for Youth Who Have Serious Emotional Disturbance: Developmental Transition and Young Adult Outcomes," Journal of Mental Health Administration 24 (1997): 400–27.
  21. Maryann Davis and others, "Longitudinal Patterns of Offending during the Transition to Adulthood in Youth from the Mental Health System," Journal of Behavioral Health Services and Research 31(2004): 351–66.
  22. Joe Cocozza and Kathy Skowyra, "Youth with Mental Health Disorders: Issues and Emerging Responses," Juvenile Justice Journal 8, no. 1 (2000).
  23. Ann Vander Stoep, Cynthia Evans, and Jennifer Taub, "Risk of Juvenile Justice System Referral among Children in a Public Mental Health System," Journal of Mental Health Administration 24 (1997): 428–41; Jennifer Rosenblatt, Abram Rosenblatt, and Edward Biggs, "Criminal Behavior and Emotional Disorder: Comparing Youth Served by the Mental Health and Juvenile Justice Systems," Journal of Behavioral Health Services and Research 27 (2000): 227–37; Floyd Westendorp and others, "Variables Which Differentiate Placement of Adolescents in Juvenile Justice or Mental Health Systems," Adolescence 21 (1986): 23–37.
  24. Vander Stoep, Evans, and Taub, "Risk of Juvenile Justice System Referral" (see note 23).
  25. Huizinga and others, Co-Occurrence of Delinquency and Other Problem Behaviors (see note 14).
  26. Copeland and others, "Childhood Psychiatric Disorders and Young Adult Crime" (see note 19).
  27. Ibid; David Huizinga and Cynthia Jacob-Chien, "The Contemporaneous Co-Occurrence of Serious and Violent Juvenile Offending and Other Problem Behaviors," in Serious and Violent Juvenile Offenders: Risk Factors and Successful Interventions, edited by Rolf Loeber and David Farrington (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1998), pp. 47–67.
  28. Randy Otto and others, "Prevalence of Mental Disorders among Youth in the Juvenile Justice System," in Responding to the Mental Health Needs of Youth in the Juvenile Justice System, edited by Joseph Cocozza (Seattle: National Coalition for the Mentally Ill in the Criminal Justice System, 1992), pp. 7–48.
  29. Teplin and others, "Psychiatric Disorders in Youth in Juvenile Detention" (see note 1); Wasserman and others, "The Voice DISC-IV with Incarcerated Male Youths" (see note 1); Atkins and others, "Mental Health and Incarcerated Youth" (see note 1); Kathy Skowyra and Joseph Cocozza, Blueprint for Change —A Comprehensive Model for the Identification and Treatment of Youth with Mental Health Needs in Contact with the Juvenile Justice System. Appendix B: Youth with Mental Disorders in the Juvenile Justice System—Results from a Multi-State, Multi-System Study, at www.ncmhjj.com/Blueprint/pdfs/Blueprint.pdf (visited September 1, 2007).
  30. Alan Kazdin, "Adolescent Development, Mental Disorders, and Decision Making of Delinquent Youths," in Youth on Trial: A Developmental Perspective on Juvenile Justice, edited by Thomas Grisso and Robert Schwartz (University of Chicago Press, 2000), pp. 33–65.
  31. For a discussion of reasons why girls in juvenile justice have a greater prevalence of mental disorders than boys, see the article by Elizabeth Cauffman in this volume.
  32. Teplin and others, "Psychiatric Disorders in Youth in Detention" (see note 1); Gina Vincent and others, "Gender and Race Differences in Mental Health Symptoms in Juvenile Justice: The MAYSI-2 National Meta-Analysis," Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, forthcoming.
  33. Teplin and others, "Psychiatric Disorders in Youth in Detention" (see note 1).
  34. Robert Roberts, Clifford Attkinson, and Abram Rosenblatt, "Prevalence of Psychopathology among Children and Adolescents," American Journal of Psychiatry 155 (1998): 715–25.
  35. Patricia Torbet and others, State Responses to Serious and Violent Juvenile Crime (Washington: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 1996); Thomas Grisso, "Society's Retributive Response to Juvenile Violence: A Developmental Perspective," Law and Human Behavior 20 (1996): 229–47.
  36. For example: "Mental Health Care: Too Many Teens, Too Few Beds: Financial Woes Have Forced Nearly All Long-term Residential Facilities in Tucson to Close," Arizona Daily Star, 13 November 2000.
  37. For example, "Families Face Torturous Trade-Off: Parents Give Up Children to Ensure Treatment for Mental Illnesses," Columbus Dispatch, 28 July 2002; U.S. General Accounting Office, Child Welfare and Juvenile Justice—Federal Agencies Should Play a Stronger Role in Helping States Reduce the Number of Children Placed Solely to Obtain Mental Health Services (Washington: U.S. General Accounting Office, April 2003) (reporting results of a federal government survey of nineteen states in which 12,700 youths were in juvenile justice facilities solely to get mental health services).
  38. Much of the following discussion has been detailed in a book designed to guide future policy to address this problem. Thomas Grisso, Double Jeopardy: Adolescent Offenders with Mental Disorders (University of Chicago Press, 2005).
  39. Connor, Aggression and Antisocial Behavior (see note 2); John Weisz and Peter Jensen, "Efficacy and Effectiveness of Child and Adolescent Psychotherapy and Pharmacotherapy," Mental Health Services Research 1 (1999): 125–57.
  40. Phillip Kendall and others, "Cognitive-Behavioral Treatment of Conduct-Disordered Children," Cognitive Therapy and Research 14 (1999): 279–97; Nadine Kaslow and Martie Thompson, "Applying the Criteria for Empirically Supported Treatments to Studies of Psychosocial Interventions for Child and Adolescent Depression," Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 27 (1998): 146–55.
  41. Scott Henggeler and others, Serious Emotional Disturbance in Children and Adolescents: Multisystemic Therapy (New York: Guilford, 2002); Patricia Chamberlain, "Treatment Foster Care," in Community Treatment for Youth, edited by Barbara Burns and Kimberly Hoagwood (Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 117–38.
  42. Alison Cuellar, Sara Markowitz, and Ann Libby, "Mental Health and Substance Abuse Treatment and Juvenile Crime," Journal of Mental Health Policy and Economics 7 (2004): 59–68.
  43. Alison Cuellar, Larkin McReynolds, and Gail Wasserman, "A Cure for Crime: Can Mental Health Treatment Diversion Reduce Crime among Youth?" Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 25 (2006): 197–214.
  44. Magda Stouthammer-Loeber, Rolf Loeber, and Charles Thomas, "Caretakers Seeking Help for Boys with Disruptive and Delinquent Behavior," Comprehensive Mental Health Care 2 (1992): 159–78.
  45. Michael Tonry and Mark Moore, Youth Violence (University of Chicago Press, 1998).
  46. Wendy Mager and others, "Intervention Groups for Adolescents with Conduct Disorder: Is Aggregation Harmful or Helpful?" Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 33 (2005): 349–62.
  47. Mark Lipsey and David Wilson, "Effective Interventions for Serious Juvenile Offenders: A Synthesis of Research," in Serious and Violent Juvenile Offenders: Risk Factors and Successful Interventions, edited by Rolf Loeber and David Farrington (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1998), pp. 313–45.
  48. Gerald Young and Pierre Ferrari, Designing Mental Health Services and Systems for Children and Adolescents: A Shrewd Investment (Ann Arbor, Mich.: Edwards Brothers, 1998); David Mears, "Critical Challenges in Addressing the Mental Health Needs of Juvenile Offenders," Justice Policy Journal 1 (2001): 41–61; John Burchard, Eric Bruns, and Sara Burchard, "The Wraparound Approach," in Community Treatment for Youth, edited by Barbara Burns and Kimberly Hoagwood (Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 69–90.
  49. Albert Duchnowski, Krista Kutash, and Robert Friedman, "Community-Based Interventions in a System of Care and Outcomes Framework," in Community Treatment for Youth, edited by Barbara Burns and Kimberly Hoagwood (Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 16–37; Michael Foster, Amir Qaseem, and Tim Connor, "Can Better Mental Health Services Reduce the Risk of Juvenile Justice System Involvement?" American Journal of Public Health 94 (2004): 859–65.
  50. Daniel Mears and William Kelly, "Assessments and Intake Processes in Juvenile Justice Processing: Emerging Policy Considerations," Crime and Delinquency 45 (1999): 508–29; Nancy Young, Sid Gardner, and Kimberly Dennis, Responding to Alcohol and Other Drug Problems in Child Welfare: Weaving Together Practice and Policy (Washington: Child Welfare League of America, 1999).
  51. James Howell and others, "Integrating Child Welfare, Juvenile Justice, and Other Agencies in a Continuum of Services," Child Welfare 83 (2004): 143–55.
  52. Grisso, Double Jeopardy (see note 38).
  53. About the Juvenile Detention Alternatives Initiative (Baltimore, Md.: Annie E. Casey Foundation), at www.aecf.org/majorinitiatives/juveniledetentionalternativesinitiative.aspx (visited September 1, 2007).
  54. Rani Desai and others, "Mental Health Care in Juvenile Detention Facilities: A Review," Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and Law 34 (2006): 204–14.
  55. Thomas Grisso, Gina Vincent, and Daniel Seagrave, Mental Health Screening and Assessment in Juvenile Justice (New York: Guilford, 2005); Thomas Grisso and Richard Barnum, Massachusetts Youth Screening Instrument-Second Version (Sarasota, Fla.: Professional Resource Press, 2006); Wasserman and others, "The Voice DISC-IV with Incarcerated Male Youths" (see note 1).
  56. See the article by Alex Piquero, in this volume, on disproportionate minority treatment in juvenile justice processing.
  57. See the article by Peter Greenwood in this volume.
  58. Linda Teplin and others, "Detecting Mental Disorder in Juvenile Detainees: Who Receives Services," American Journal of Public Health 95 (2005): 1773–80; Kenneth Rogers and others, "Conditions Associated with Identification of Mentally Ill Youths in Juvenile Detention," Community Mental Health Journal 42 (2006): 25–40.
  59. Grisso, Vincent, and Seagrave, Mental Health Screening (see note 55).
  60. Thomas Grisso and Judith Quinlan, "Juvenile Court Clinical Services: A National Description," Juvenile and Family Court Journal 56 (2005): 9–20; Antoinette Kavanaugh and others, "Obtaining and Utilizing Comprehensive Forensic Evaluations: The Applicability of One Clinic's Model," Nevada Law Review 6 (2006): 890–912.
  61. For a description of the probation officer as a team member in a system-of-care approach, see Patricia Chamberlain, "Treatment Foster Care," in Community Treatment for Youth, edited by Barbara Burns and Kimberly Hoagwood (Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 117–38.